Hierarchy of Assessment and Correction

There are various pieces of information for a coach to focus on when surveying a student. It is important to prioritize the elements that offer the highest yield benefit to the player and are also easily actionable to correct. Often, coaches and players focus on secondary skill sets instead of primary ones. Focusing on less important factors can obscure the highest value information and complicate the correction process unnecessarily.

To implement the most practical method of assessment and correction, a coach should adopt a "hierarchy of assessment" that becomes automatic and the default when multiple mistakes are being made or when the on-court situation becomes complex. In other words, some corrections should take higher priority than others due to their greater value to the student and because addressing higher priority items can sometimes resolve other issues. For example, if a player consistently moves inside the baseline after serving, they may frequently be caught off balance when hitting their 3rd shot forehand drive. While proper balance on a forehand drive is important, the focus should be on maintaining proper court position to start the point, rather than on the off-balance forehand swing. Although this is a simplified and more obvious example, the principle of prioritizing court position as the higher priority item illustrates the hierarchy of assessment. Maintaining an "order of operations" simplifies the coaching approach and the improvement process for the student.

The hierarchy of assessment and the definition of each category is as follows:

1. Anticipation

2. Court Positioning 

3. Shot Selection 

4. Mechanics

Definition of Anticipation:

Reading, recognizing, and reacting to cues from opponents, general tendencies, or past patterns of play to anticipate responses as early and accurately as possible.

Definition of Court Positioning:

The position a player and/or team takes on the court before, during, or after specific strokes are played.

Definition of Shot Selection:

The type of shot a player chooses to play from any specific area of the court.

Definition of Mechanics:

The body movements used by a player when executing specific types of strokes.

It should be noted that, in some cases, a coach will need to prioritize improving a player's mechanics to a minimum level of proficiency. If a player struggles to make consistent clean contact with the ball or cannot control the general direction of their shots with any degree of consistency, it will be necessary to move directly into mechanical corrections. However, barring a very clear mechanical deficiency, the coach should focus on three fundamentals that will yield the greatest improvement while remaining simple and easily actionable for the player. These fundamentals are anticipation, court position, and shot selection. All three categories are easily actionable since they are straightforward for a player to learn and adopt without requiring the development of better physical skills. A player can learn the cues to anticipate appropriately, assume the proper position on the court, and select the best shot from a given position on the court. This is particularly relevant since the number of patterns of play to anticipate is relatively narrow, the pickleball court is small, making good physical mobility less important, and there is limited open space to hit into, making shot selection more impactful.

The essence of this hierarchy stems from the significant impact of good court position versus poor court position. Court position dictates the outcome of the point to such an extent that physical skills have a reduced degree of impact. A team with inferior technique and physical skills can consistently outperform a team with superior technique and skills simply by anticipating likely responses, moving to the correct position on the court, and choosing the correct shot to hit from that position. This contrasts with other sports that require extensive physical skill development before proficiency is reached and other parts of the game can be brought into focus. However, the relatively low difficulty level of striking the ball at a passable skill level in pickleball makes technique and physical skills less important than in sports with higher minimum proficiency levels. Proper mechanics and developing a high level of physical skill are beneficial, but they must be built on the foundation of a thorough understanding of anticipation, court position, and shot selection to maximize a player's development. For these reasons, it is important to develop a coaching lens that prioritizes fundamentals over advanced mechanics. Once a solid grasp of the fundamentals has been reached by the player, a coach can shift to whatever category holds the greatest potential for improvement.

#1. Anticipation

Anticipation is particularly important in pickleball, as certain patterns of play recur frequently. Recognizing these patterns beforehand allows players to respond more quickly and effectively. Anticipation begins before the preceding shot is initiated and, in some cases, even before the point starts.

For example, the serving team should anticipate that the returner will attempt to land their return deep in the court and then move up to the kitchen line. By anticipating this sequence, the serving team can prepare their next steps more effectively.

Key implications for the serving team include:

• Positioning for the 3rd Shot: Knowing they will likely hit the third shot near the baseline.
• Serving Strategy: Recognizing that a strong, deep serve can disrupt the returner’s plan to hit deep and move to the kitchen line.
• Court Awareness: Understanding that the returner will be less balanced and in a weaker position than their partner at the kitchen line, making the returner’s side of the court more vulnerable to attack.

Many players fail to anticipate appropriately, even in simple situations like the one described above, and especially as situations become more complex. Coaches can significantly improve their players’ anticipation through consistent guidance, helping them identify likely patterns and effective responses. This is particularly beneficial at lower levels of play.

Categories of Anticipation

Anticipation can be separated into several primary categories:

• What type of shot to anticipate from the opponent
• Where to anticipate the incoming shot to come from
• Reading, recognizing, and reacting to past, current, and impending information
  • What sort of responding shot to have prepared
  • Where the target for the anticipated shot should be
  • Where to move to following the execution of the shot

This method is illustrated below using the example of a returner being coached to anticipate a serve appropriately:

• What type of shot to anticipate from the opponent: A serve that lands deep in the service box with moderate to high pace and spin.
• Where to anticipate the incoming shot to come from: Originating from the cross-court direction at an angle into the service box.
• Reading, recognizing, and reacting to past, current, and impending information:
  • Past Patterns: Observe previous serving tendencies, such as a consistent focus on serving to the backhand.
  • Current Situation: Watch for indicators like the opponent’s swing path and paddle face angle to anticipate the serve's pace and spin.
  • Impending Shot: Once the serve is launched, read the ball's incoming trajectory and anticipate the required adjustments based on the ball's angle, speed, and spin.
  • What sort of responding shot to have prepared: Position well behind the baseline, favoring the preferred return wing (forehand or backhand) to allow forward movement into the return.
  • Where the target for the anticipated shot should be: Attempt a deep return with sufficient height to avoid net errors and provide time to move forward to the kitchen line.
  • Where to move to following the execution of the shot: Move quickly to the kitchen line, following the angle of the return.

Providing clear, simple objectives to the player through anticipation at each step of this shot sequence creates a concrete plan that emphasizes the important aspects and simplifies the process for the player. Anticipation is crucial for a player's game development, and coaches play a vital role in helping players fill in the blanks in their thinking, guiding them to anticipate common patterns of play. Proper anticipation equips a player to execute more effectively, significantly boosting their overall performance.

#2. Court Position 

Court positioning is one of the single most impactful factors contributing to a player or team consistently experiencing success or failure. Assessing and correcting court position is one of the most straightforward yet effective coaching approaches. The value of prioritizing court position lies in how quickly and easily assessments can be made by the coach, and how rapidly players can make adjustments. Given the relatively small size of a pickleball court, altering positioning does not require a high degree of mobility. Instead, it is more about instilling good habits rather than increasing physical mobility, making it an easily correctable aspect of play when approached with the right emphasis.

The importance of court position stems from the limited court space and the immediate imbalance in strength of positioning that occurs when the receiving team seizes forward position first.

A closer look at the geometry of a pickleball court reveals several key factors that exaggerate the need for proper court position:

• The court is relatively narrow, limiting open space laterally when covered by two players.
• The net is high relative to the court’s length, making it a significant obstacle to clear consistently.
• The court’s length is limited, making high-velocity shots and lobs more likely to land out of bounds.
• There is limited access to spin to circumvent the court geometry by bending the flight of the ball due to paddle and ball regulations.

These factors make it nearly impossible for a team in a less advanced court position to maintain greater consistency than a team positioned further forward.

Advantages of an Advanced Court Position:

• Reducing the opposing team’s reaction time.
• Creating sharper angles for shots.
• Improving hitting angles over the net.
• Increasing the velocity of shots.

The most obvious and recurrent form of court positioning is the battle between a team established at the kitchen line and a team attempting to transition forward. However, the impact of court positioning can take many forms. For example, something as simple as avoiding moving inside the baseline immediately after serving, to avoid having to retreat on deep returns, can have a substantial effect. Additionally, less obvious positioning strategies, such as coordinating effectively with a partner, are also crucial.

Key Factors Influencing Court Position:

• Ball Position: The height and location of where a player is about to contact the ball.
• Opponents’ Positioning: Recognizing the strengths and weaknesses created by the opponents’ position on the court.
• Partner’s Positioning: Coordinating appropriately with your partner to cover the court effectively and maintain the strength of the team unit.

When teaching court positioning, it is essential for a coach to emphasize the importance of positioning relative to the ball’s location and the other players on the court. Players should understand the general principles of where to position themselves in any specific situation to maximize their chances of playing an effective shot.

If one player is out of position, it can significantly weaken the team’s overall strength, leading to a higher likelihood of a negative outcome if the opposing team recognizes and exploits the weakness. Therefore, it is equally important to teach players how to recognize when the opposing team is out of position to capitalize on opportunities. Players should know the proper positioning for themselves, how to coordinate with their partner, and how to assess and recognize the opposing team’s movements.

Common Positioning Categories:

1. Establishing/Maintaining Kitchen Line Position: Controlling the kitchen line gives a team several key advantages:

• Reducing opponents’ reaction time.
• Limiting the open space inside the kitchen for opponents to hit into.
• Avoiding backward movement that puts a player in a more defensive, off-balance position.
• Providing better hitting angles over the net.

The receiving team is typically in this role, as they can take command of the kitchen line immediately after striking their return of serve. The two-bounce rule ensures the returner will have adequate time to establish forward position.

2. Transition:

A team attempting to move forward towards the kitchen line from a deeper court position is at a clear disadvantage compared to the opposing team already established at the kitchen line. The serving team is typically in this role, as they must wait for the return of serve to bounce, giving the receiving team the opportunity to establish forward position first.

3. Lateral Positioning:

Shifting side to side is necessary to cover the court effectively and cut off the angles available to opponents. Lateral shifts are usually subtle, given the court’s limited width, but are essential for effective coverage.

4. Defensive Scrambling:

This involves reacting to offensive lobs, retreating after popping the ball up, moving backward to counter deeper shots, or coordinating as a team to defend overheads. Knowing when and how to create space to increase reaction time is crucial for successful defense.

5. Favoring a Preferred Wing:

Players often prefer hitting with their forehand or backhand for specific shots. When possible, a player can favor their preferred shot by positioning appropriately. Given the court’s narrow width, it is often possible to favor a specific side without being put significantly out of position.

Correcting positioning results in more controlled rallies with predictable patterns, significantly increasing balance and coordination, which leads to rapid improvement. It also forms the proper habits necessary as the level of play progresses. Without this fundamental base, it is difficult or impossible to progress to more advanced concepts.

#3. Shot Selection 

Shot selection and its correct application are compounded by the frequent discrepancy in court position between opposing teams. One team is often in a more commanding position, allowing for consistently aggressive plays, while the team in the weaker position must play more measured shots to maintain consistency. Effective shot selection involves learning what shots are at a player’s disposal, understanding the strengths and weaknesses of different shots, and applying the correct shot to the specific situation at hand. Choosing the right shot in any given position is vital for maintaining consistency, controlling the tempo of the game, applying pressure on opponents, setting up opportunities for winning plays, and forcing opponents into more difficult positions that lead them into lower-percentage shots.

When working with beginners or low-level players, it is best to start by focusing on the most straightforward and basic shot selection objectives, such as achieving consistent depth on serves and returns. Taking it one simple step at a time allows players to quickly learn the fundamentals, establish a foundation that builds confidence, and enables them to expand to more advanced shot selection as they become familiar with the basics. By giving players simple goals for what they should aim to achieve with their shots, they are more likely to experience success, which leads to the valuable expansion of experience during live point play.

Having a concrete plan of action gives a player confidence and allows them to focus less on what shot to play and more on executing a quality shot. Decision-making and patterns of play should be developed to have a level of predictability that accompanies high-percentage play. A player can still develop creativity and positive unpredictability in their game, but not at the cost of deviating from consistent patterns in situations that demand reliability. A player can have relatively predictable “boring” shot selection and reach a very high level due to the nature of pickleball being a game of errors. When high-percentage decision-making is applied, fewer errors are made, making a player more difficult to beat.

It is important for a coach to frame the correction of shot selection as helping players achieve more consistent and effective shots through the simple adjustment of altering the type of shot attempted. A player should understand the purpose of any given shot and why it gives them the best chance of success. This can occasionally run contrary to the type of shot they currently experience success with. Demonstrating why a certain type of shot will not be effective long term can be an important component in breaking through to players who are stubborn with their shot selection based on short-term success. This does not mean a coach should be dogmatic about the types of shots they recommend. Adjustments should be made based on a player’s skill set and strengths and weaknesses, balanced with a long-term vision of how the player can continue to reach their desired level of success. While some flexibility in shot selection is possible depending on a player’s skill set, it is common for players to become “stuck” at a certain level due to poor shot selection rather than being limited by their physical skills. A coach’s job is to prevent this by promoting high-percentage decision-making that has staying power as the level of play rises.

Players are often tempted to play shots that appear advantageous but lead to inconsistent results. It is particularly important to remind players who fall into this type of decision-making trap of the wisdom of picking the right battles. Although power and hitting to open space can be tempting, factors such as the court position of the players and the height of contact play a crucial role in determining appropriate shot selection.

A player may have a diverse skill set but will struggle to maximize it without applying appropriate decision-making. Shot selection is integral at lower levels of play for more obvious reasons, such as leveraging universal advantages that lead to more clear choices. However, shot selection becomes potentially more important at higher levels of play, where opponents’ counter moves can punish incorrect decisions. At higher levels, being well-versed in foundational shot selection is important not only for personal application but also for understanding what opponents are likely to do, how to respond, and how to keep them off balance.

As a simple example of the impact of shot selection, a player can execute the exact same shot but achieve markedly different results simply by choosing to hit the shot in a different direction. If a player is about to hit an attacking shot from an elevated contact point against a team in a staggered formation, the odds of hitting a winning attack are significantly increased by playing the ball to the player more advanced in the court. Upon closer inspection, the reason becomes somewhat obvious—the closer player has less time to react. However, failing to consistently identify and execute the right shot in this scenario is surprisingly common, and mistakes often go unnoticed by players repeating the same error over and over in their decision-making process. A simple correction to their shot selection can boost a player’s overall level without the necessity of improving physical skills. Proper decision-making will raise a player’s level even if their physical skills remain the same. This is typically most pronounced for beginner players who have little to no understanding of proper shot selection. By making simple corrections early on, beginner players can adjust and improve at a very rapid rate.

There are many factors that go into a player’s shot selection, including:

• Direction
• Depth
• Height
  
• Speed
• Spin
• Angle

What combination of these elements should be employed depends on a wide variety of factors, such as the court positioning of the players, the height of contact, balance during the stroke, the pace, spin, and angle of the incoming shot, and the specific abilities of the player and the opponents.

Aside from the general categories listed above, there are several key categories of shot selection that are also worth noting:

• Forehand vs. Backhand Strokes:

Players should decide how heavily they favor their forehand or backhand based on the strength or weakness of their particular strokes, the type of shot being attempted, and the movement required to get into position to play one stroke over the other. Most players do prefer one stroke over the other, depending on the type of shot they are attempting. It is preferable to favor the stronger stroke when possible but also to develop a reliable alternative to have versatility and to avoid being put out of position or off balance unnecessarily.

• Speeding the Ball Up vs. Slowing the Ball Down:

Pickleball has a unique aspect to shot selection that permits attempting a powerful shot vs. a soft touch shot at almost any given time. Due to the presence of the kitchen zone, a player is essentially provided a permanent safe space to deposit soft shots to keep their shots safe from being attacked effectively. The alternative option is to play a powerful shot to apply more pressure on the opposing team. Striking a balance between playing soft and hard shots in a multitude of situations is a decision-making process that defines pickleball strategy in many ways. Making the correct decision depends on a variety of factors, but finding the correct balance in these situations is one of the most crucial elements of shot selection.

• Offensive vs. Defensive Mindset:

How a player or team approaches any given shot has a high impact on their success or failure, depending on what the situation demands. Hitting a shot with high pace is often viewed as synonymous with being aggressive. However, the intention of a shot can drastically alter how it is approached and executed. For example, a deep return of serve that forces a player onto their heels should elicit a defensive drive that attempts to draw a weaker response on the subsequent shot, rather than hitting the drive with the intention of being aggressive. Contrast this with a short, high return of serve that sets up a player to hit an aggressive drive intended to apply pressure on the opposing team. In both scenarios, a drive is played, but with very different intentions behind them. It is vital for the mindset of any given shot to match the specific situation at hand. Failing to do so will result in inconsistency or missed opportunities. Likewise, hitting a soft shot is often viewed as synonymous with being defensive. However, an aggressive-minded dink into the corner that puts an opposing team out of position and off balance would be considered offensive. In contrast, when a player is off balance and out of position, a reset dink might be played with margin over the net into the shallow part of the kitchen, which would be considered defensive. Again, in both instances, the same type of shot is played but with very different intentions. Various factors such as the position of the teams, balance, and height of contact, among others, dictate whether a given shot should be offensive or defensive.

• Volleying vs. Playing the Ball Off the Bounce:

Once the ball has bounced once on each side of the court to begin a rally, players will often be presented with the opportunity to either play their shot out of the air or off the bounce. This may seem to be a straightforward decision-making process specific to a player’s position and the incoming speed and trajectory of the ball. However, due to the relatively low bounce of a pickleball, letting the ball bounce often has significant implications for a player’s height of contact, as well as other factors such as balance. This decision-making process is particularly relevant when a player is positioned at the kitchen line, which prevents them from volleying from any further forward in the court. Players are often presented with the option of stretching forward over the kitchen line to volley the ball or allowing the ball to bounce, often forcing a slight retreat backward. Striking a balance between maintaining good court position, maintaining balance, and gauging the advantages and disadvantages of these two opposing options is a decision-making process frequently encountered in various positions on the court. Particular attention should be placed on these decisions that determine whether to play the ball out of the air or off the bounce, as the height of contact can be significantly affected due to the low bounce of the ball.

• Targeting:

A player often has the ability to play the ball to one opponent over the other. This decision-making process is important for both general and specific reasons. If one opponent is in a more defensive court position than the other, the option to play the ball to a specific player should be leveraged depending on the situation. In a more case-based scenario, it can be advisable to target one player over the other based on their personal skill set on various shots and in different areas of the court. Targeting is both a general and specific component of shot selection.

It should be emphasized that the foundational principles of proper shot selection should be taught before expanding to more specific situations. Once a player has an understanding of the general rule, qualifications can then be made for specific situations. Building a solid foundation for a player’s shot selection is best ingrained early on, before they have had time to pick up bad habits through haphazard play that lacks intention.

It can be particularly useful to set up drills or games that repeatedly simulate specific game situations in order to place focus on one particular component of shot selection. By singling out specific common patterns of play where poor choices typically occur, a player can accumulate reps and receive pointed feedback on how to improve their decisions even when under pressure in fully open point play.

Shot selection is one of the simplest but most important mental capacities a player can develop to increase their level of play. It is through principled shot selection that a player allows themselves the consistency required to build other skills upon. More evolved shot selection requires a blend of foundational strategic thinking and situational awareness. Coaches must guide players in recognizing different scenarios and applying the best choices based on the various factors. Without proper shot selection, a player will lack the appropriate framework to develop a game that they and their partner can rely on.

#4. Mechanics

Mechanics play a direct role in where a player hits their shots and how consistently they can reproduce results. It is crucial for a player to have fundamentally sound mechanics to progress each part of their game and their overall development.

When working with new players, it is important for a coach to focus on the basic building blocks of mechanics rather than putting too much emphasis on perfecting technique. Often, coaches focus too heavily on optimizing the mechanics of a player’s strokes instead of coaching them to a high level of proficiency by concentrating on the most important elements of a swing. While perfecting mechanics is ideal and should be the ultimate goal, there can be a wide variance in “ideal” technique within a certain shot depending on a player’s style. Because most swing mechanics in pickleball are relatively simple, without the necessity for complex swing patterns or generating large amounts of paddle head speed, success can be achieved without highly developed technique. As long as the mechanics do not include a clear deficiency and can be reproduced consistently, some variance from optimal technique can be acceptable.

Movement patterns can also be simplified due to the limited court space that must be covered. Emphasis can be placed on efficient movement and simplifying required movement patterns as much as possible. This concept serves beginner players well but can also be applied to higher-level play through a set of advanced skills that revolve around efficiency and simplicity.

This simplification of mechanics, including movement, makes it easier for a coach to develop a player’s technique in a more straightforward manner that drills down to the most important elements of the mechanics. The focus should be on replicating movements through balance, controlling the trajectory, angle, and speed of the ball, and abbreviating unnecessary motion. These objectives are achieved through various factors, and each type of shot includes specific sets of these factors to create the desired result. The different types of shots and some typical factors are listed below:

Shot Types:

• Ready Position
• Serve
• Return
• Forehand
• Backhand
• Volley
• Drop
• Dink
• Overhead/Smash
• Resetting/Defending
• Lob

Mechanical Factors:

• Grip/Wrist Orientation
• Forehand/Backhand
• Contact Point
• Stance
• Movement/Footwork
• Backswing
• Swing Path
• Swing Speed
• Paddle Angle
• Target Area
• Shot Trajectory
• Weight Transfer
• Spin

As demonstrated by the number of categories listed, mechanics and the diagnostics required to assess proper and improper technique make mechanical corrections the most complex for a coach. It is important to identify the most common causes of success or failure within a particular shot category and focus on a limited number of those causes when giving feedback. Limiting the number of adjustments allows a player to apply corrections more effectively without becoming overwhelmed by too much information.

While not all factors apply to each specific category listed, an example of a given category is demonstrated below:

• Shot Category: Dink
• Relevant Mechanical Factors:
  • Grip/Wrist Orientation
  • Forehand/Backhand
  • Movement/Footwork
  • Stance
  • Weight Transfer
  • Backswing
  • Swing Path
  • Swing Speed
  • Paddle Angle
  • Contact Point
  • Shot Trajectory
  • Spin
  • Target Area

A coach might observe a student hitting dinks and recognize several mechanical errors such as poor footwork, improper paddle angle, overuse of the forehand side, and an overly large backswing. It is prudent to focus on one or two of these mistakes at a time, highlighting the most significant ones and allowing the player to concentrate on corrections in these areas before moving on to other adjustments. In this example, a coach might address and demonstrate how to improve footwork and avoid an overly large backswing. After some practice and improvement in these areas, the coach can then focus on the improper paddle angle and overuse of the forehand side. Within each category, the most relevant and common factors causing correctable errors will generally emerge and become clearer to a coach through experience and will be specific to each player.

Hierarchy of assessment and correction, and the proper application of it, is an overarching principle to the RPO way of coaching. Directing attention to anticipation, court position, shot selection, and mechanics in this specific order provides a method that ensures simplicity and maximizes improvement while allowing flexibility. All information provided within this course will generally be best applied through the use of this hierarchy when working with students.

1. Anticipation

2. Court Positioning 

3. Shot Selection 

4. Mechanics